Mental Health Act Essay

The main purpose of this act is to allow action to be taken, where necessary, to make sure that people with kind health difficulties or learning difficulties get the c atomic number 18 and treatment they need for their own health and safety or for the protection of other people. The Mental Health Act 1983 is the law in most of the united kingdom that allows people with a mental disorder to be admitted to hospital, detained and treated without their consent if it is truly needed, and if for their own health and safety or for the protection of other people. The court crowd out also admit people who they deal that could be a danger to themselves and others around them.However the hospital can only keep the person detained for a maximum of six months, but they can decide to discharge the patient but still have on going supervised alliance treatment. A doctor who is approved under character 12 of the Act is approved on behalf of the Secretary of State because they have special expert ise knowledge in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. Doctors who are approved clinicians are automatically also approved under section 12. Section 12 approved doctors have a role in deciding whether someone should be detained in hospital under section 2 and section 3 of the Mental Health Act.An approved clinician is a doctor, a psychologist, a mental health nurse, an occupational therapist or a social worker who has been trained and approved for over at least five long time to carry out certain duties under Act. Only approved clinicians can take overall responsibility for the case of someone who has been detained in hospital or put on supervised corporation treatment be their responsible clinician the legislation states that the nearest relative is someones husband, wife or unwedded partner and only of they have been living together for over six months.The person is unmarried or does not have a partner if nigh of kin will then be there children if they are over 18, however if the child is not over eighteen or there is no child present the next of kin will then be one of their parents. However, a nearest relative should be informed or consulted if mental health professionals are proposing to detain someone for treatment under the Mental Health Act unless it is not practicable to do so, or unless consultation would outgrowth in unreasonable delay.MedicationYou whitethorn be required to take medication prescribed for you by your doctor if you are on a community treatment order (CTO) under the Mental Health Act. There are rules in place, called consent to treatment, that cover whether you should take it. These rules also ensure that you understand why you need to take the treatment, how it will be given to you and possible side-effects. When you are first given medication for your mental illness, your doctor should explain what the medication is for. ordain you about any side-effects.ask for your consent.What happens next?After one month, if you still give consent to continue taking your medication, your doctor will fill in a certificate to confirm this. However, if you are too unwell to give consent, your doctor must have the agreement of a Second Opinion found Doctor (SOAD) for your treatment to continue. If the SOAD agrees that you should continue with all of your medication, or just some of it, they will fill in a certificate confirming this. Can I change my mind?You can change your mind at any time even after you have agreed to continue taking your medication. You should let loose to your doctor before you make any decisions. What if I do not give my consent?If you refuse your medication while on a community treatment order, your doctor cannot force you to take it. However, if your doctor believes that you may become unwell without taking the treatment, they can recall you back to hospital. Additionally, consent to treatment rules may not apply to you if Your life is at risk.Your health will deteriorate without the treatment.You are a danger to yourself or others.

Purpose of a Literature Review Essay

Purpose of a literary works Review to come in what has already been done/found, in relation to the research topic that is being studied and answers the question of what needs to happen next. provide a brief overview of research youve read. border that you understand the topic and start out significant knowledge within the field of study and then make a case. Making a case whitethorn be an analysis of research, study, or conceptual argument. Also, be sure to include a persuasive argument. At the end of a literary productions review you should identify a gap or misinterpretation within the tuition (identify and explore the gap). My approach to writing this literature review was somewhat equivalent to the writing of a regular essay. Ive used this approach in past assignments Ive completed including such as a narrative and an annotated bibliography. They all have similar char comeeristics. Thank goodness for this It gives me an idea of where to start. I believe these common c haracteristics are the main subject of the piece of writing and evidence/textuality of your point from other readings. Textuality is victimisation pieces of writing from other works to support your points.Beware, though these essays may serve as a guide, they also have many differences. What should you do next? *Ponders* development Information Information Be resourceful, support your claims, justify your answers. It is important that you do this in the correct way. My greatest advice would be to ask your professor for a mate review guide and use it as you write. This leave alone ensure that your writing is clear, organized, flowing, and well-written. If you feel as though you cannot do this for yourself, Id suggest having individual else read your literature review aloud. Dailyns essential steps to writing a literature review these are my own ideas so I have no proof if they actually worked until I recieve feedback. Im hoping I pulled this one to pee-peeher. How do you appr oach literature reviews? Good luck, and until next date. Take care. writings Reviews What this handout is about This handout will explain what a literature review is and offer insights into the form and construction of a literature review in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences. Introduction OK.Youve got to write a literature review. You dust off a novel and a book of poetry, settle down in your chair, and get ready to issue a thumbs up or thumbs down as you leaf through the pages. Literature review done. Right? Wrong The literature of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a topic, not necessarily the great literary texts of the world. Literature could be anything from a set of organization pamphlets on British colonial methods in Africa to scholarly articles on the treatment of a torn ACL.And a review does not necessarily mean that your proofreader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not you liked these sources. What is a literat ure review, then? A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. A literature review can be just a simple outline of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information.It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant. But how is a literature review divers(prenominal) from an academic research paper? The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a research paper will contain a literature review as one of its parts.In a research paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions. Why do we write literature reviews? Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field.For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the source in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research papers investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers. Who writes these things, anyway? Literature reviews are written occasionally i n the humanities, but mostly in the sciences and social sciences in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of the paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.

Islamic Culture

MUSLIM CULTURE Muslim civilization gener eachy reflects the traditions and customs of Muslims that they adopt for a perfect and tidy life in the society according to the lessons of Quran. Muslim culture is a giant combination of respective(a) cultures, Thats because Muslims live in various countries all over the domain. Most of the bores atomic number 18 common faiths and guidance for all Muslims no matter what country or even content they reside in.. These basic faiths and belives are based on the teachings of Islam. The Muslim culture is a subject of debate for many people who lives in different parts of the world and be coarse to diverse communities.Muslim culture represents the unification of brotherhood where all Muslims are bound to practice a common religious phenomenon. Source of this culture comes from the teachings provided by the Holy prophesier Mohammed (P. B. U. H) and Islam (Bouhdiba, 2003). Muslims are the followers of Islam and the Islamic (Abrahamic) devoti on. Word Muslim originally comes from an Arabic term which means Followers of Allah because the Islamic religious deliver. Muslims count on unrivalled God and admits that Allah is incomparable and Islam is a holiness which provides them with a complete code of life.Teachings of Quran are unaltered revelations from Allah. Muslims enter the world of Islam from almost all races, cultures and nationalities well-nigh the globe. Muslims have diverse traditions, dress, foods and actors lines (Murray, 2004). The distribution of Muslims in the world varies in strength. About 15% Muslims are those who live in Arab countries. 5% of Muslims are in Africa. The worlds largest Muslim population lives in Ind isia. Significant parts in Asia are occupied by Muslim community. Almost all of the Central Asia is dominated by Muslims. Over one billion people in the world are Muslims.Muslims brought ancient civilizations of Rome, Persia, Egypt, India and Greece with them. Muslims preserved these cultu res in their libraries and cities and cherished the great Islamic calm of art (Bouhdiba, 2003). The practice of Muslims is based on five pillars of Islam which are basically five obligations. These five pillars are Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, Sawm and Hajj. A life of a Muslim revolves or so these five pillars of Islam. Islamic culture represents different aspects of Islamic life, which includes wedding traditions, clothing, foods, arts and crafts etc. (Kirabaev, 2000).There are many sources of a well-defined Muslim culture. Three of them are Local tradition , The Hadith and , The Quran. Muslim culture is derived from Quran, Hadith and the local customs. The word Islam means submission to the will of Allah. Islam is considered to be the second largest religion having one billion followers. 2. 7% Muslim population have been recorded in the United Kingdom (Murray, 2004). Muslims have a faith that Islam revealed in Mecca (Arabia) about 1400 years ago. Islamic culture is a resource academ ia for the illustration of cultures and traditions of Islamic people.Arabs were the first to depict and demonstrate Muslim culture to the world. Islam originated in Arabia in the one-seventh century. Islamic empires have been expanded and Muslims got assimilation from different cultures like Indonesian, Berber, Malay, Indian, Pakistani, Turkic and Persian (Kirabaev, 2000). Arabs never used force to invite people from other religions into their sect. around embraced Islam in the reign of Holy Prophet P. B. U. H while many are converters. Arabic language is a common language of this religion. Arabians were animateness in deserts before the conquest of Islam and used science and art in their everyday living.Muslims have specific style of poetry and arts. Muslims have spread their language and religion through their way of life, arts and crafts as well as scientific fields. Arabians have developed different interests and tastes taking influence from other cultures in the first place Persian and Greek. There are 22 countries in the Arab world with 180 million populations. Arabs can speak more than one dialect and share most common beliefs and values of Arab or Muslim culture. major(ip)ity of Arabs in Arab countries are Muslims. Many Arabs are Christians as well like in Egypt, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.Muslims and Arabs do not drink alcoholic drink and eat anything which is Haram in Islam. Muslims observe Fast during the month of Ramadan. Muslim women used to wear scarfs on their head and cover their body with long dresses. Muslims offer prayer five times a day after observing ablution and then they recite Quran that provide them comfort to their soul. Islamic religion and the Arab culture provide emphasis on a good health and issued several ways and means to follow the tips of a good health by having a good diet and proper hygiene practices. Muslims have introduced a modern theme of medicines with a confidence in their way of treatment.In the Muslim w orld, elders are respected due to their experience. Men are the protectors of their family and women are required to show their obedient attitude towards men (Murray, 2004). Islam prohibits eating those foods and drinks which are considered haram or unlawful in this culture. It would be a sin if any Muslim commits a mistake eating and drinking forbidden foods and drinks respectively. Foods considered unlawful include pig meat, drinking alcohol and carrion. If meat is not slaughtered according to Islamic rules, it is considered unlawful. The place where the Islam originated is Mecca, Saudi Arabia.Muslims believe on prophets (one lac twenty-four thousand). For Muslims, the sacred building is mosque where they can pray and worship Allah. Major Muslim festivals are Eid-ul- Adha, Eid-ul-Fitr and Ramadan (Kirabaev, 2000). The prophet Muhammad P. B. U. H was born in Mecca in 570 A. D. in Saudi Arabia and is regarded as a Holy founder of Islam. The prophet Mohammad P. B. U. H was sent by Al lah as a last prophet of Islam. However, Adam was the first prophet of Islam. Many prophets came before Muhammad (pbuh) which includes Jesus, Jonah, Elias, Solomon, David, Aaron, Moses, Abraham and Isaac.Islam has different ideology for non-monotheist religions since relationship of Islam with religion like Hinduism varies depending on religious outlook. This variability persists today as well. Islam is a religion of liberty and open-mindedness giving the lessons of tolerance and patience (Murray, 2004). Islam forbids to pain on the living things. Islamic artists have developed an art of Arabic calligraphy. The calligraphers have learnt the art of calligraphy from Quran using Arabic language that expresses the beauty in the pee-pee of Quranic verses.Islamic architecture has covered religious and secular styles of architecture from Islamic foundation that has influenced the construction and designs of buildings in the culture of Islam. The architectural types in Islam are fort, pala ce, tomb and mosque (Kirabaev, 2000). Muslims believe in Allah, angels, holy books, prophets, the day of judgement and belief in predestination. Shia and Sunni are the dominant groups in Islam. Education is made to be a compulsory practice in Islam. Islam has its own political and economic theory and encouraged free trade policy.The economic system in Islam is based on the instructions and orders provided by Allah in Quran. Islam has favored democracy and liberty of thoughts. Muslims have incorporated different languages, arts and law from other religions but they preserved the integrity of Muslim culture and traditions till the end (Bouhdiba, 2003). Work cited Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab. The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture. Springer Publishers,2003. Kirabaev, N. S. Values in Islamic Culture and the Experience of History. Routledge Publishers, 2000. Murray, Stephen O. Islamic Culture, History and Literature. Springer Publishers, 2004. .

Little Prince by Antoine De Saint-Exupery Essay

The slight Prince or Le Petit Prince was inspired by the author Antoine de Saint Exuperys real life sleep with and just added fictionalized images to make it real and understandable. It became the marvelous book written for children. Sold over 140,000,000 copies worldwide into more than 250 languages and has been one of the best-selling books published ever. According to Paris-based Saint-Exupery Foundation, The Little Prince is the most translated book in history after The Bible. It also enduren as childrens fable for adult as it conveys profound and idealistic views in human nature and its settings. Until now, The Little Prince is still the most advisable book non only for the children that also to the adults to read.Antoine de Saint Exupery was a French flyer and writer who became more popular with this novella, which was written in year 1943. After failing in a university preparatory inculcate and was not able to come his real dream to become a naval officer. He entered i nto a una same(p) field which is architecture merely still resulted in failures and he did not even graduated. In 1921, he started his military service and was sent to Strasbourg for training as a pilot. In 1926 he became one of the pioneers of international postal flight. Until an stroke happened in 1935 wherein a sudden machine failure strike and crashed it in the Libyah Sahara desert. In four days of experiencing dehydration, there was a Bedouin on a camel spy them and saved their lives.The book begins with the narrator, which is the Pilot reminiscing the days when he was a six year old boy. He was trying to draw a feather boa constrictor and shows it to the gr make-ups, but they ever so advise that he should stop dreaming to become an artist instead he should focus in geography, grammar, arithmetic and history. So he gave up his dream to become an artist and choose another profession which is to pilot airplanes. And whenever he met soulfulness, he al modes showed his draw ings of boa constrictor and asked them if they know it. only if he always gets an answer of Thats a hat. Then he would never talk to that person nigh boa constrictor again. Until a plane crash virgule happened in Sahara Desert and he met the little prince that asking him to draw a sheep. After three attempts and failed to draw a sheep, he decided to draw a box instead and explained that the sheep were inside of it. That was the start of their friendship.The narrator soon found out that the little prince came from what he called his major planet which is Asteroid B-612. Where there can be found a baobabs, a two active volcanoes and a flower. As each day passed, the narrator soon learned to know the flower. Its importance and the way it was treated by the prince. When the prince is about to travel onto the other planet, he found himself in the neighborhood of asteroids 325, 326, 327, 328, 329 and 330. The first of them was inha goadd by a king, who was said to regulation everythin g but the real thing is its completely nothing. The second planet was inhabited by a conceited man, who always think that everyone were his admirer. The third planet was inhabited by a tippler, who is not consistent with what hes saying. The fourth planet belonged to a businessman, who is busy in counting stars and also believes that he owns them. The fifth planet was the smallest planet wherein there was just a street lamp and a lamplighter.The little prince has legal opinion that the lamplighter could be his friend and also because of the 1440 sunsets it has every day, but the planet is too small for them. The sixth planet was ten times larger than the last one. It was inhabited by a geographer who wrote voluminous books. He was scene as an explorer and was asked several questions in his own planet. On the latter part, the geographer advised the planet Earth as the best to visit. When the little prince arrived in on the planet earth, he first met a snake claims that by dint of his poison he can bring the little prince back to his planet. Had talk to a three-petaled flower, climbed in to highest mountain hoping to see a human. Then he found a rose garden that made him depressed because he thought of his flower in his planet which acclaimed shes one of a kind. He also met a fox and they became friends.The fox made him realize what makes his flower unique is because of the way he gave importance to it. The prince continued his go where he met the railway switchman and a merchant. He discovered lot of new things about differences of grown-ups and the children. Back to the present, the narrator experiencing dehydration and with the succor of the little prince, he found a well. Later he found out that the little prince was deciding to go back to his planet for his flower through the help of the snake.The little prince made a very sentimental f arwell but the narrator refuses to leave him alone in the desert. Soon, the little prince allowed the snake to bite h im and falls without making a sign. The next morning, the narrator was not able to find the body of the little prince and concluded that he must be already at his planet. The story ends with a portrait of the landscape where they have met. Making the readers secure if some day they willing be in African desert, and will meet a little man with the same characteristics. That will surely be the little prince.The Little Prince is known as a children fable and an mannikin of allegory. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines allegory as the expression by means of exemplary fictional figures and actions of truths or generalizations about human existence. There be many symbolic fictional figures to consider in the story. First the stars, it symbolizes the feeling and emotions of humans. It also symbolizes the mystery of the universe. Secondly, the planets and the remarkable persons can be found on it. They symbolize the group of people, where different type or attitudes of grown-ups are in . Thirdly, the rose symbolizes as the comfort zone. If you wont get out of it, you wont discover or know a lot of important things. Fourthly, the trains which can be found in Chapter 22, it symbolizes the things how people rushed things and wasnt able to see the importance of its existence. Lastly, the water symbolizes a spiritual fulfillment or as a completion for what supposed to be done.The point of view in the poem is a first person, which is the pilot. But mostly focuses in narrating the story up to the end.Still the question is, who is this book really written for? Yes, it has been said that this is good for both children and adults. But there are some ideologies might not be understandable for the children, just like the bizarre story of a little prince that fell in love with his flower. And for the adults wherein their invalidating perspective has been criticize. Is that what really the book for? A blogger named Erin (2008) of Goodreads said that We are all children in adul ts bodies. Yes we are, dont think we arent for one moment.The fact that we WERE, indeed, children, is a huge part of each of us. It is possible to shed a few appreciative tears on every page of this book if you entertain the thought that the pilot IS The Little Prince. Maybe you wont think thatmaybe youll have your own take on the bookthats the magic about itConsider honoring the Little You that still remains, and resides within you, and read this salute to childhood, to innocence, and to you. It just takes a Little whim and bravery.This book is made to tickle the imagination of the children as well as to show sort of the reality about grown-ups. Every story has its own moral lesson. In this story, children can have their own realization on reading it. Adults can also have their own insights about themselves.Its good for the children to read because of its illustration, based on an open ejaculate site Wikipedia, The Little Prince was illustrated through watercolors painted persona lly by Exupery. Another unknown reviewer noted that the author Exupery chose the best illustrations to maintain the ethereal feel he wanted his story to exude. Choosing between ambiguity and literal text and illustrations, Saint-Exupry chose in every case to obfuscate. to a fault, good for the young adults because of its humorous attack in portraying values.The mood is first a mystery, wherein the little prince did not reveal where he comes from. It captures the imagination of the readers. Until pieces by pieces it became adventure when the little prince started to tell the story of his journey in seven planets including the Earth.The tone of the story is much more with being regretful when the little prince left his flower alone in his planet. Curiosity in the part of the narrator about his real identity and where did he came from. Happiness and sadness all throughout the days were the narrator and the little prince were together in the desert. But at the end, still being able to treasure the moments they have together makes each characters happy.Philosophical approach is used because it mostly focuses in relations with the undesirable values of grown-ups. Then a part of it is Biographical because some scenes are almost similar with the experience of the author. Example of this is the narrators boa constrictor drawing but grown-ups were always telling him that its a hat. For the author, this scene may be similar when he failed to enter in the preparatory university school and wasnt able to pursue his dreams. Instead he ended up for being an aviator.There is also a part of Introspective approach as cited in by Wahlig (2010), its a reader-response approach, where the reader takes an active role in garnering meaning or value from a text. The reader is responsible for victorious an inventory of her own biases, values or assumptions prior to reading and pinpointing the ways that a text challenges or reinforces those traits. Introspective approaches also value t he subjectivity of the readers experience and assume that an objective reading is either impossible or no more valuable than a subjective reading. It occurs when it simply engage the readers if through their own experiences in dealing with the attitude of grown-ups and will make a self realization if the books telling the truth towards their attitudes.As the mostly recommended book for children, the writer executed a different type of writing or illustrating the story. Exupery stated on page 19, chapter 4 of the Little Prince Figures are a matter of indifference. I should have liked to begin this story in the fashion of the fairy-tales. I should have like to say Once upon a time there was a little prince who lived on a planet that was scarcely any bigger than himself, and who had need of a sheep to those who understand life, that would have given a much greater air of truth to my story. The way he uniquely narrate the story is one factor why this became remarkable not only to the c hildren but also to the French literature.This book is full of symbols and meanings, but what are the moral lessons?Valuing life as well as the little things on it is the highlight of this story. Everything we say or show to others will reflect to everyones whos involved until the end. Just like what happened to the narrator of the story, he wanted to be an artist and also tried to show his drawings numbers one and two to the grown-ups of a boa constrictor. But he always gets a wrong recital and insisting him not to pursue his dream of being an artist instead focus on grammar, arithmetic, geography and history.The negative side of it reflected when he became a pilot, and someone asked him to draw a sheep. He did not know how to draw anything aside from boa constrictor since he stopped to draw when he failed about his boa constrictor. Also in reality, the way how people look more in to the physical appearance than to the inner side. Like on Chapter 4, where there was a Turkish star gazer in 1909 in a Turkish costume. Nobody believed on what he said about asteroid B-612 because of his look. And when he tried to present it again in European costume, everybody accepted his report.It is only with the heart that one can see rightly what is essential is invisible to eye.Grown-ups are indeed so much like that, for them figures are more important than its meaning. The interpretation or understanding of the story will always depend on how it will touch ones heart.References* Adamson, Thomas Little Prince discovery offers new insight into classic book, The Times Tribune May 2012 * De Saint- Exupery, Antoine, The Little Prince, B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd. * Goodreads, The Little Princehttp//www.goodreads.com/book/show/157993.The_Little_Prince* Wahlig, Hannah, Types of Approaches in literary Analysis, http//www.ehow.com/info_8368198_types-approaches-literary-analysis.html * Wikipedia, Antoine De Saint-Exupery http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_De_Saint_Exupery * Wikiped ia, TheLittle Princehttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Prince

Intro to Linguistics Essay

The study of human lyrics including the influence of virtuoso style on many former(a) how language and course argon formed and change within time the rules of the language- how nomenclature be formed, the structure of sentences and row relationship in the midst of culture and language how language is stimulated- the wreak of language acquisition (foreigner verses mother diction language). T here atomic number 18 ii approaches/types of linguals 1. Traditional philology- the only field that ruled until the 20 century. 2. Modern Linguistics Traditional Linguistics.Characteristics 1. Proscriptive approach- according to this approach, linguists tell native intercommunicateers how to use their own mother knife- what argon the rules set norms of/ dictating the justly use of the language, the rules and the right use of the language- educating the native speakers. The inclination is to tell the speakers what is considered right or wrong language. 2. Focus on the written language- Most of the focus is on the written text, which is considered superior to the verbalize language the chemical group of the rules. 3.Diachronic Research (etymology) Historical research- the study of the origins of words and languages, which reveals many connections amongst different languages. Due to technological developments, the influence of wholenessness language on a nonher is even higher these days. Modern Linguistics At the set aboutning of the 20 century, there was a shift of interest to the following The human languages are much complex and highly different than animal communication systems- due to amazing cognitive human communication ability (the language faculty).A known Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Sassure- the first linguist to pose the following motility what do we know when we know a language (mother tongue)? By asking this question the focus of linguistics was shifted from grammar to the study of human language as a cognitive ability (cognitive sci ence). The focus shifted to Language faculty ( ) and what it harps of. Characteristics 1. Descriptive approach- we observe native speakers use the language, two in writing and in speaking, and try to draw conclusions out of it- learn about the changes that the language undergoes through time.Not interested in what should be, still alternatively in what IS. There is no judgment of the use, just observation and description of the catamenia use, in order to analyze and find correlations. 2. Focus is on the spoken language- point of de furcateure is that the spoken language is more than important to the research because of the following * It is slight conscious, more inherent, off-the-cuff and dynamic and therefore it reflects better the flow rate use of the language. * Not all languages keep up a written system, scarcely everyone has at least one mother tongue language.* The written language is less natural- one needs to study it in a very logical means whereas the spoken language mother tongue is acquired in a natural a except, commons to everyone (normally in the early years of 3-4). 3. Synchronic Research (current) the focus is non on the origin/History of the words barely on the current use of the words today. We are less interested in what happened except rather in what is happening today. Knowing The whereas knowing about 07/11/11 Linguistic Fields 1. Phonetics- the study of linguistic sounds (also called phones) which are consisted of harmonicals and vowels.The focus is on the articulation and pronunciation of sounds (indep checkent of the letter/ graphics). How the sound is captured. It is independent of the letters (which is just the graphics). How we produce and perceive sounds. 2. Phonology- deals with sounds in interaction, and when they are brought together into words- they usually affect each other. Cats(s), dogs(z)- slightlything very systematic- ( )) 3. Morphology- examines words structure, and the ways words are added i nto our vocabulary, i. e. how we form new words.Ex- dis/ center/ed/ness (the parts are also called Morphemes- small units of words) 4. Syntax- deals with sentence structure and the importee of sentences. We also examine differences between languages- the order of verb and its subject, adj, nouns etc. In addition, we examine Syntaxic Processing , for workout Without her contributions/ are hard to find. At first glance- it looks like something is missing in the sentence, when positively we did not operation it in the right way- we potbelly look at the sentence as without her, contributions are hard to find.5. Semantics- the study of meaning- both of words and sentences, and the logic behind them. 6. Pragmatics deals with meaning in context- how we get a account one some other beyond what is actually said (the use of the language). For example do you get the time? One wont answer yes but rather tell the some personify what time it is. Not like the dry literate meaning, Pragm atics deal with the actual use of language meaning in context- beyond the literate words that were actually said. 2 - * 6 ( = 6 ) * 6 ( = ) 7. Discourse Analysis- Like Pragmatics, this also examines the use of language, but the focus is on the text. written vs. spoken text Narratives vs. expository text the use of conjunctions types of text different tenses complex vs. simple sentences the length of sentences vocabulary etc. 8. Language acquisition- we examine the process of acquiring a language- mother tongue and and then foreign languages.How minorren acquire their mother tongue so quickly? How does the process happen? Which words are produced first etc. It is associate to all the other fields mentioned above. 9. Neuro Linguistic- examines how linguistic knowledge is represented in the whizz. For example aphasia- brain injury that affects the part of the brain that understands linguistics. 10. Psycho Linguistic- a very big field that examines the correlation between language and psychological cognitive processes (for example lexical retrieval).Sometimes one meaning of a word is more prominent than the other, depending on the context. For example bug- insect/ computer come tod problem. The field also examines what happens when there is no context- how we associate between words and its meanings. For example word priming- Duck-(goose/ book)- the word duck primes with goose, faster than with the word book. 11. Historical Linguistics- examines the evolution of languages, the origin of words, and the relation between languages- how they genetically related to one another (Etymology). 12.Computational Linguistics-deals with building artificial intelligence, creating models that try to imitate how language works and use it in different applications. Related to the implementation of linguistics. teaching extraction, more practical. (for example Google translate). 13. Clinical linguistics ( )- the use of linguistic cocks for speech therapy, for hoi polloi who drive home language disorders (both kids and adults). 14. Social Linguistics- the field that examines the interaction between language and society (socio stinting and cultural factors).Socio-linguistics We distinguish between dialects- different varieties of the same language, as a result of many factors. Types of Dialects- 1. Geographic Dialect-changes according to region (city, country). In the states there are so many different dialects, depending on the area one grew up in. 2. Sociolect-typical for a certain group in the society, which has its own amicable, economic and cultural characteristics. 3. Idiolect-dialect that is typical to an individual. It is sometimes gradual, and we dont always notice it. Usually bases on imitation.Each of us speaks a little bit otherwise (intonation, pronunciation, vocabulary etc). 21/11/11 Linguistic knowledge- every 4-5 year old can speak the mother tongue language. Where does the ability to understand and speak a language comes from? The 2 opposed approaches argue on the source of that ability/knowledge Is it ingrained (genes) or acquired (comes from the purlieu, stimulates, feedback)? Two opposed currents in science, which perk up great debate on the nature of human knowledge in general. They argue on the source of the human knowledge 1.Empiricism ( backside lock Hume) -every person comes to the world, as a clean slate- have no knowledge, which means that human knowledge opposes the sum of experiences. Nothing is nescient, we are only equipped with the ability to respond. Everyone are born equal- with nothing innate. This means humans can be shaped- their thought can be manipulated using feedback and exposure. 2. Rationalism (Decardes)-claim that human knowledge does not equal the sum of experiences we are born with some innate material- we are equipped with some ability, to which experience is added.Experience is not the only thing All people are equal, but this equality is based on richness- we all share something very basic and innate, to which environment is added. At the beginning of the second half of the 20 century, the argument of human knowledge continued with regards to the human language mother tongue (different theories) Behaviorism- As continuance of Empiricism- there was a current called Behaviorism (BF mule driver, wrote the communicatory Behavior, 1957). B. F.Skinner claimed, based on Empiricism, that Linguistic knowledge is based solely on exposure and the ability to react- to learn from experience. That means everything is acquired, nothing is in the Genes. Skinner also claimed we explode our sets of sentences, by analogy (differ in only one thing- thus it is able to expand ones use with the other). For example a kid only perceive put-on ate an apple- but he give be able to create the following sentence John ate an Orange using Analogy.This means, we learn and use language, by exposure +analogy. - In the following sentences, con figuration of who does what changes (relationships between the entities) when changing the word told to promise and still, it is mechanically understood by a fry in his mother tongue John told bill to clean the room John promised Bill to clean the room. How? -analogy is not enough to explain the above. -Noam Chomsky (Influenced from Rationalism wrote the Syntactic Structures, 1957) -a linguistic who argued against Skinners observations, claiming Analogy is not enough and we have to assume inborn/innate linguistic knowledge, common to all human beings (regardless of their language or culture), which is also known as the Hypothesis of innateness. The experience and the feedback are mapped on to these language biological properties (encoded in our genes). The experience and feedback are not enough to explain mother tongue knowledge We have to add it to something innate. Language is partially innateEvidence Chomsky proposed to execute his theory 1. Properties of human languages (natur al languages, animals communication systems are excluded)- * Homogeneity- except for pathological brasss, all human beings acquire at least one mother tongue more or less at the same time regardless of their region, culture, socio-economical condition etc. This implies there is something biological in the acquiring of a mother tongue language- we are all the same. * Infiniteness- language is infinite- we have the ability to produce and understand an endless number of sentences, including sentences that we have never heard originally.We have the ability to expand the language (for example- we never count to 1,000,000 but we can). * equal properties across languages- there are some properties that all languages share (therefore- it has to be in the genes, otherwise how can it be explained? ). For example * All languages have nouns and verbs thus, it has to be some inborn categories. * Universal grammer rules/structures, that all languages share * John said that Mary bought a car. What did John sound out Mary bought? * Bill said that John said that Mary bought a car. What did Bill say that John said that Mary bought?* John break the rumor that Mary bought a car. What did John spread the rumor that Mary bought? Ungrammatic sentence- any speaker will know this sentence is un grammatical- impossible in English. What prevents speakers of using the above structure intuitively (in other languages as well)? Chomsky claimed that there are universal constraints (in all grammer of all languages) that prevent it. 28/11/11 2. Properties of the process of language acquisition (mother tongue) * Process is quick and efficient- sister has to acquire a very complex system of rules, and he does it by the age of 4-5.By the age of 5 he already masters the language (in comparison to the long and complex process of learning a foreigner language). It shows that there is something innate behind it, otherwise- it would have been a quick process also when learning foreigner langua ge. * Critical period/age- there is a certain age in which the child essential be exposed to a language (the innate system has to be stimulated, activated), in order to acquire it- the age is usually some 6-8, and in some extreme cases it can go until adolescence (16).If it was not activated during the critical period, the child will have no mother tongue- he will have no grammer. He will be able to communicate in a basic function, but without the richness and infinity of the mother tongue acquisition, since the brain is no longer elastic enough to acquire a mother tongue. The issue of critical period provides support for the importance of both exposer and innate theories. Chomsky agrees that exposer is crucial, but it is crucial to activate innate abilities.If it was only exposer it would have been possible to acquire a mother tongue at any age. * Process is spontaneous/ immune against external interference- the process happens by itself and the teacher/ parent cannot manipulate it. MCNeal (1964)-research that shows you cannot manipulate childs grammer, it will eventually change by itself with exposer. * Identical stages across languages- children acquire their mother tongue in parallel stages across linguistics, more or less at the same time, regardless of the language.This shows that there is some biological aspect to the process of mother tongue acquisition we have to assume something innate in order for the process to be so universal. (First they babble, then acquire first words, combining 2 words together, then start using sentences). * Poverty of stimuli- stimuli(the input) is poor- it is not enough to explain completely how a child acquires and masters his mother tongue a. The stimuli is partial and consists of errors- the child can never be exposed to everything, still he makes up sentences he has never heard before.What he is exposed to is limited, yet what he can produce is endless. In addition, the stimuli consist of errors- he child doesnt alwa ys listen to complete/ grammatical correct sentences the input he hears consists of partial sentences and grammatical errors yet the children know how to filter the errors and eventually acquire a perfect grammer. b. There is no teaching- the process of acquiring a mother tongue involves no methodological and pedagogical process (in regard to grammer). c. No negative evidence- there are mistakes that no child will ever make, even though he is not told ahead not to make them.For example John thinks he is smart (he can be either John or somebody else) VS. He thinks John is smart (he can never refer to John). When examining language acquisition, we see children making many mistakes, but no child will ever use the second sentence when he wants to refer to John. No child will make such mistakes to begin with- they just know, without being told ahead. De Sassure was the first one to ask what do we know when we know a language? What does it mean to know a language? He distinguished betwee n the following terms * Langue-the rules of the language, that are agreed upon by some society.The rules of a language, but from a social point of view (a social term). * release-everything we use or say- the way we actually use the language (What we actually do, language wise). Linguists are generally more interested in the Langue (the knowledge). De Sassure didnt relate to the question of innateness- what abilities, if any, we have in our minds 12/12/11 Noam Chomsky used 2 other terms Competence vs. Performance. 1. Performance the same as Parole performance is how we actually use the language what we actually write or say. 2. Competence is not exactly the same as Langue.Both relate to the rules of the language, but Langue is about the society, the community (grammer is something social, that we all agree on- social interaction creating social agreement) and Competence is about the individual (the system one has in his mind some of it comes from the genes and some from the environ ment). Competence is the ability that each of us has to produce and understand an endless number of sentences. Every speaker of every language, has the ability (whether it is innate or not). The point of view of Chomsky and De Sassure is different when relating to the rules of the language.In modern linguistics- the focus is on the Langue- competence and not directly what we say/do with the language (the main remnant is to crack the black box and understand how the system works). The performance is the mean to learn about the competence, not the direct end. It teaches us/indicates about the competence the way we speak or write tells us about how the knowledge is organized in ones mind. The main question that linguists ask is what does competence consist of? Chomskys Model UG+EXPOSER= G. Chomsky assumes innateness and that language faculty is to some extent universal (some things are common to all languages).He Offers a SPECIFIC model for this question When a child is born he is in t he initial state. In this state, he has some specific knowledge, shared by all languages Universal Grammer (UG) it is the grammer that is common to all languages. In addition to the difference in vocabulary, there are grammatical differences between languages by the end of the critical period, he has more than the UG, he ends up with Particular Grammer (PG, G)- specific grammer of a specific language. There are many Gs, as many as the number of languages in the world.A child is equipped with universal grammer, common to all languages, and during the first years he is exposed to his mother tongue and how it takes place (feedback, corrections, mistakes etc)- and acquires particular/specific grammer. UG+EXPOSER= G. The G is a combination of something innate and something that comes from the environment. What does the UG consist of? According to Chomskys model, UG consists of two things 1. Principles- rules that are innate and that are common to all languages (things that dont change a t all from one language to another, such as the existence of nasal consonants).2. Parameters- those are also rules that are innate, and are also part of universal grammer but in contrast to princi buddys, these are open rules, whose values (fillings) are acquired during the exposer. The values are not common to different languages, Thus they have to be acquired via exposer. For example in all language there is a subject in every sentence but in some languages the subject must be a separate entity- which means the subject position is always occupied vs. in some languages the subject can be dropped (English does not allow the displace of a subject cant say ate an apple.We must add a subject vs. Hebrew- represents the subject. In the French language, we are not allowed to drop the subject, even when it is known who did the action Jai mange la pomme- the French ai is like the Hebrew , yet we still cannot drop the J we have to have a separate entity for the subject). This paramet er is called the Null subject parameter ( )- The Parameter the subject must be pronounced separately The determine of the Parameter (that has to be filled- determined through the acquisition process) Yes or No.In Hebrew and Italian the value is no (in some cases, we can have a sentence without a subject), in English and French the value is Yes. During the critical period, the child is exposed to the data in his mother tongue and they acquire the values to the fixed parameters (the parameter is innate, its values though are not innate- they change from language to language and acquired in the childs critical period). another(prenominal) Parameter is * It is juicy outside- * It seems that Marry is late- * There is a cat in the room- In English the occurrence of the pronouns (functioning as the sentences subject) it and there is a must they cannot be dropped (it is not grammatical, although one will be perfectly understood if hell say it) in Hebrew, we can drop them. Even th ough semantically we dont need the subject, in English it must be filled. These pronouns are called Expletive / Pleonastic Pronouns- pronouns that do not refer to an entity, but theyre only function is to fill the subject position. They HAVE NO SEMANTIC ROLE, THEY ARE ONLY THERE TO FILL THE POSTION OF THE SUBJECT.We distinguish between pleonastic pronouns and referential pronouns, which refer to some motley of entity (he, she, w, they etc). It and There are not always expletive pronouns- they can also function as referential pronouns It is hot outside (expletive) vs. I cant eat the dope, (referential) the cat is there (referential) vs. there is a cat in the room (expletive). We can relate to it as two parameters 1. Parameter an expletive pronoun exists values yes/no. (In English- yes, in Hebrew- no). 2. Parameter a subject is a must values yes/no.(We can say that if a language must have a subject, it will necessary have Expletive pronouns and vice versa If the subject is not a mu st- there are no expletive pronouns. there might be, but they will not be a must). The two things come together- * Cluster of properties- The Parameters come in clusters- one affects/ can teach about the other. The existence of Principles and Parameters strengthens the hypothesis of innateness, because it shows the occurrence of certain grammer structures is not random- there is something consistent across different languages, which therefore must be predetermined, innate.19/12/11 Some languages require an independent subject and in addition- they have expletive pronouns (it seems that the quiz will be difficult- expletive this soup is not tasty because it is cold. The it is referential- points to an entity). Proposition Stranding and Pied Piping Who did you speak to? can also be asked as followed To whom did you speak? - These are two possible grammatical structures that manifest the same idea. It is not possible in Hebrew This construction is called- Preposition Str anding- you desert the proposition by itself leaving the proposition by itself at the end of the sentence. It can be viewed as a parameter, differentiating languages. Another construction/parameter is Pied Piping- locating the proposition at the beginning of the sentence. This parameter is valued yes in both English and Hebrew (allowed in both languages). Material for the quiz is up to here -Phonetics and Phonology- These are both fields that deal with sound and specifically linguistic sounds (phones- ) sounds that are parts of a language. Phones are divided into consonants (b, l, r, m) and vowels (e, a, i ). The differentiation doesnt refer to the letters, but to the sounds that are used course/ automatically.(Since the same sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters, for example the sound K- is represented by 4 letters k, c, q, ch. We will refer to all 4 as K). In Phonetics- Different sounds are examined in different languages how they are produced and how t hey are perceived- it is a skillful field regarding how pronunciation works.One sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters or one letter u represents many sounds university, fur, put, cut etc. Conclusion there is no balance between sound and symbol. Phonetic systems (systems of symbols- used for transcription- write exactly as you here it- distinguish between spelling and pronunciation) 1. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) a system of symbols, used mainly by linguists, in which every sound corresponds to one symbol and vice versa. 2. American Phonetic Alphabet (APA) similar, yet competing system to the IPA.These are two similar, yet competing, artificial languages/ systems, dealing with the ambiguity of the languages/ with the lack of correspondence between sound and symbol. Both systems are based on English letters, other than special sounds/exceptions (that have no one specific letter in English that prescribe them) such as * in order to indicate/tran scribe sh we use stretched big s (IPA) or s(APA)- (the should be crest down) * ch= t+stretched big S with a bow on summit meeting of them (IPA) or c (APA) * for th (such as in thin) = 0 with a line across it (APA+IPA) 26/12/11 A negligible equal- * big- pig * sing- sang.* dean- teen (The only difference is the phone- t vs d. The spelling is irrelevant) * knight- light These words are different in meaning, yet they are different in only one sound. The switch of the consonant g/ p changes the meaning of the word. This kind of word p transports are called minimal pair-a pair of words that differ from one another in meaning and in one phone (sound) only. (Only one difference in pronunciation- the spelling is irrelevant) * night- knight are not a minimal pair, because there is no difference in pronunciation. Phoneme- Phoneme- a minimal linguistic unit that can change the meaning.One of the goals of recognizing minimal pairs is to recognize the basic sounds in a language, that can cause a change of meaning. We use the tool of minimal pairs to identify and distinguish between the Phonemes of a language. Aspirated consonant ( ) * Spy vs. pie- when we pronounce pie, there is a greater puff of air when pronounced. This is also the case in stole vs. tall (in tall we puff much more air). These are aspirated consonants, which are marked with a little h on top of the consonant. They are two types for the same consonant- the regular and the aspirated one, where we puff a greater amount of air (pie tall).Are the aspirated consonants phonemes? (Can they distinguish between a minimal pair? -can we find a pair of words that the only difference between them is aspirated consonant vs. non-aspirated). In English, there is no such pair yet in the Hindi language we can find several examples. Conclusions 1. In English, they are not phonemes (vs. Hindi), because they can never occur in the same environment/ positioning of the word, which means they are 2 manifestations/versions of the same thing. We can harbinger in which environment/ when the aspirated consonant will occur. 2. negligible pairs are used to distinguish between phonemes and also to determine which consonants and vowel are not phonemes. 2/1/2012 Pig big (minimal pair) vs. Pie, spy (not a minimal pair since there are 2 differences in pound). In English, aspirated and regular Complementary Distribution- these two sounds never occur at the same environment/ same location of the words, which means they are two manifestations of the same thing of the phone p. This means P is the phoneme which has two manifestations aspirated and regular (non-aspirated). This means that this phone has two allophones.Two ways of language representation- 1. Phonemes- the general term for linguistics sounds. These are the basic sounds of a language, and are language specific (are not the same in different languages). They are part of the Underlying Representation (UR) the way and the place words and sounds in spe cific, are represented in our mind- in the backstage- abstract representation. The phoneme has two manifestations one is the actual p and the other is the aspirated one. 2. What we actually say are allophones. Allophones are in the Phonetic/ Representation (PR) what comes out of our mouths (articulation).Every phoneme is also an allophone, but not the other way around Thus, there are some things that are represented in the PR, yet are not represented in the UR (like the aspirated p). In the Ur we have the regular P phoneme, which has two manifestations in the PR In English, the only case we see an aspirated P is in the beginning of a word and before a vowel (both must occur together). In all other case the P will not be aspirated. For example Possible, put, pink, pan, etc. vs. apply, spring, nobble etc. This means the aspirated P has no independence existence- we can predict its occurrence.The default is the regular P and only in a specific environment will have an aspirated P. Th e aspirated P doesnt exist in the UR Another example is regular N vs. the back N They cannot distinguish between minimal pairs in English- will never occur in the same environment. We will find the back n only before the sounds k and g- in specific environment, which is predictable. For ex bank, Bangkok, rank, chunk, rang, ring, thanks, bring. The normal N is the default will occur everywhere else, except for before the sounds g and k sounds.These two allophones are two versions of the same thing (of the one phoneme) that never occur in the same environment- complementary distribution. N is the phoneme, which has two allophones n and back n. We can predict exactly where each of the manifestations will occur. * The phoneme is in the UR and the allophones are in the PR. * The default is always in the UR The phoneme. * The allophones are always in complementary distribution- meaning they never occur in the same environment and will never distinguish between minimal pairs.You can nver find in English 2 words where the only difference between them will be n and back n. * Minimal pairs are the tools to identify phonemes. Distinctive Features 1. Aspiration The pair pal- pal (with aspirated p) in Hindi these two words are different in meaning and in one phone only. In specific, they are different in one feature only aspirated vs. non-aspirated. This means, they constitute a minimal pair (In Hindi). Aspiration this feature in Hindi unlike the English, we have both because they have independent existence- each of them is a phoneme on its own.Aspiration this feature in Hindi, unlike English, is a Distinctive Feature- a feature that distinguishes between 2 phonemes in the same language and as a result it can create a difference between minimal pairs. Aspiration is not a distinctive feature in Hebrew and English. It is a distinctive feature in Hindi language. 2. Voicing ( )- Dean Teen d- Is a voice (+voice) consonant ( ) and t is voiceless (- voice). This feature, called voicing, creates different meaning in both words. Thus, it is a distinctive feature in English, because it can distinguish between minimal pairs.Minimal pair- a minimal pair is a pair of words that differ from one another in one meaning, 1 phone (sound) only, and the 2 phones must be different in one feature 9/1/2012 Phonetic features of consonants- What makes sound/phones different from one another? Linguistic sounds are called phones, and are divided into consonants and vowels. The difference between the two in the production of vowels the air flows freely, however in the production of consonants the air is blocked to some extent. The speech organs- body organs that are involved in the production of phones (Lips, tongue, nose, teeth, and palate).Generally, the following are involved the oral cavity and the nasal cavity ( ). The consonants differ from one another according to 3 criteria 1. Place of articulation- the location in which the air is blocked and the consonant is produced (B- in the lips T- in the tongue P-in the lips and teeth) 2. Manner of articulation ( ) relates to the manner of the air flow and the degree of blocking. For example n- blocked in the nose. 3. Voicing- relates to the vibration/ the lack of vibrat.

“He Is More Than A Hero” written by Sappho Essay

He is a god in my eyes- the man who is allowed to sit beside youIf I met you suddenly, I cant speak- my tongue is impoverishedThe following lines were taken from a poem written by Sappho entitled He Is More Than A Hero. For those who are not familiar with Sappho, she was a resident of a city names Lesbos. She lived from 630 B.C. 570 B.C. In the city of Lesbos, Sappho was a highly respected poet/teacher by many but mainly the females. It is said that she was forever surrounded by a circle of women who studied poetry with her. I am using this oscilloscope information and the quotation from one of her many poems He Is More Than A Hero to support my surmisal that Sappho was a homosexual. Though the evidence is merely circumstantial, I feel that it is enough to convince one that she is a homosexual.The poem which I extracted my thesis statement is obviously universe written to a woman, but it is sprucely masked by the title He Is More Than A Hero and a few early(a) lines in the poem. In the beginning of the poem she is briefly describing someones male confederate who is ostensibly a good lover possessing a few qualities that Sappho admires. He who listens to the sweet murmur of your voice- the enticing gag that makes my own heart beat fast.Though the first few lines serve as a knavish mask, a cultured reader notices that the poem suddenly changes subjects, moving from a description of this man who is a god in Sapphos eyes to a declaration of love for the female companion of this man-god. The 3-4th lines pass over an unknown you who is apparently the companion of this striking male. The you is also addressed in line 9 . The domiciliate of the poem following that is a love ballad to this you who was first identified as being the companion of the man god. If one is not a skilled reader he/she may have lost the transition of the poem from one person to anformer(a).The first few lines serve as a disguise and a way for the author to express her jealousy o f him being next to his female companion. She views him asbeing a god because him being in the object of Sapphos affection makes him that. This is based on the view that if someone possesses something that you do not then they have a higher position of power than you. This prospect accounts for her viewing him as being a God.There are also a few other pieces of evidence that suggest that the poet Sappho was a homosexual. She was a resident of an city known as Lesbos. The name of the city had a striking similarity to a word which is given to homosexual women of modern times lesbian. It is also said that she was often surrounded by women who were her students. Though this evidence can be seen as being only circumstantial, I feel that the combination of her addressing a female in her poem He Is More Than A Hero as having certain homo-erotic effects on her such as devising her feel as a thin flame runs under my skin and making her drip with cause whenever she sees her is enough to la bel her as being the Greatest Lesbian Poet of Rome

Law and morals

Law and honourableity Part A Law has been define by Sir John Salmons as the body of principles accepted and applied by the state in presidentship of Justice. There atomic number 18 two theories on what virtue Is, the natural fairness theory and the positivist law theory Lloyd a natural law theorist defined the law as the constant impudence that there are objective clean principles which depend upon the natural of the universe and can be discovered by reason Natural law theorists believe that for law to be valid It must combine with natural law.Natural law theorist Aristotle describes natural law to be the law of nature. Positivist law theorists such as John Austin would describe law as a law which exists to be law though we happen to dis standardised It positivists such as Jeremy Beneath rejected natural law theories, he describes them as nonsense on stilts his key argument was that natural law was based on principles that could non be proved. Legal positivists believe that a law that is do In a manner recognized by the sovereign power of the state is valid irrespective of its content.Legal rules stool many different characteristics. For physical exertion breach of legitimate rules can result in state sanctions and reoccurred a S. 47 PAPA 1861 wretched carried and a maximum sentence of 5 years. Compliance is not a matter of choice when it comes to reasoned rules. These rules are imposed upon all members of gild. Compulsory compliance applies to judge made decisions as well. The case of R v R established that man could be found guilty of raping his wife, this was a Judge made law.Fuller would argue that this is not valid law as it is retrospective. Legal rules are made and shoot make a motion at a precise season. A precedent is created in the Judgment of case and it applies to future cases and rower courts. The legislation will however start to take effect at a precise time for example the Smoke Free Premises and Enforcement Regulation s , implemented a ban on smoking in public places , were made on 13th December 2006 but came in to effect on the beginning(a) of July 2007.Phil Harris defines society Morality as a commemorate of beliefs, values, principles and standards of behavior. Compliance with good rules is voluntary, so plurality have a choice as to whether or not they follow these. People make psycheal decisions as to what they consider moral and fast. Moral duties of Individuals ray. For example some people may believe that stillbirth is immoral while others consider It acceptable. Moral rules develop gradually. They often stem from religious rules made thousands of years ago.Over time, what society once considered Immoral, can become acceptable. For example attitudes towards homosexuality continue to revision Moral rules are enforce Informally , usually through social or domestic pressure for example John terry cloth lost his title as the England football team captain because of his Infidelity Si r John Salmons describes the relationship teenage law and moral philosophy as two Intersecting circles, with the Intersection representing laws with moral values and the separate areas for laws and morals with no connection.Many laws have a moral connection such as the law against murdering another person this can be traced back to religious scriptures such as the 10 Commandments and is punishable by a mandatory life sentence Public morality can influence changes in the law, like abortion was legalized by the Abortions Act consenting adults as society changed to accept homosexuality the more law has followed this change by trim the age of consent to make it the same for trousseaux couples in 2000. Law reform may result from a campaign to change public morality. Howard league for penal reform persuaded the government to take a look at capital punishment.The government refused to change the laws because society considered death penalty to be morally correct. Subsequently a pressure group was set up, during the years of 1955-1957 public opinion was changed by the campaign and the government introduced laws to abolish the death penalty Public morality can be influenced by law reform such as the stultification Discrimination Act 995 as by the Disability Discrimination Act 2005, which makes it against the law to discriminate against disable people in any areas of employment, education, access to goods, facilities and operate and the function of public authorities.It can be argued that legislation is introduced to with the aim of educating the public to recognize morally improper behavior. Thus demonstrating the convergence between the two Some legal rules appear to have no moral connection. Like the fact that smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol is legal but cannabis is illegal. passageway traffic laws such as irking on a yellow line. In Britain there is no keen Samaritan law, however we all have a moral duty to support those around us if they are in danger .For example a passer-by will not be legally held responsible if they dont help someone drowning. But they do have a moral duty to help them this was seen in 2007 when 2 Pesos were subjected to bad media and moral outcry when they failed to help a drowning boy. The reason for divergence between moral and legal rules is that the moral attitude might not me widespread and they may not reflect popular morality The UK as a large multicultural, multiracial society, with citizens with different views on politics and religion.For example some people regard abortion as immoral while others see it as acceptable for medical reasons only at the second reading of the human fertilization and embryology bill on may 20th 2008 MSP voted against reducing the current 24 weeks abortion limit to 20 weeks. Therefore demonstrating that although there is a relationship between Law and Morality it will always be partial. Art B The wolfed stem was issued in 1957 it was set up to consider the law relating to nonsexual acts & prostitution, also to see the function of the criminal law in such cases. The military commission said the function of the law is to pressure public order and decency and to protect citizens from what is offensive or injurious and to provide sufficient safeguards against exploitation and corruption of others, particularly those who are vulnerable.The function of the committee is not to intervene in private life of citizens or to enforce any particular fig of behavior. The committee made three proposals which were, homosexual acts between two concerting adults should e made legal, soliciting in the streets should be made an offence and selling of services for money should be a private matter. The Hart and Devils disceptation was prompted by the wolfed report by the wolfed report. The focus of the debate was the extent to which the law can enforce moral rules.Lord Devils set out his view in a book (the enforcement of morals, with Hart setting up his views in his own book that the minority should not be made to conform to the view of the majority when in private. Sir James Stephen argued in his book liberty, equality, fraternity (1874) that o shouldnt attempt to distinguish between self-regarding act and acts which regards others is like an attempt to distinguish between acts which happen in time and acts that may happen in space.The wolfed report supported Harts view that law and morality should be separate, however various cases decided since the report show that Judges are imposing their moral views on their Judgments, for example R v Brown. This is an example of how moral change led to legal change. Devils views are in line with those of Sir James Stephen, as Devils believed that individual hiding should be respect.