Intro to Linguistics Essay

The study of human lyrics including the influence of virtuoso style on many former(a) how language and course argon formed and change within time the rules of the language- how nomenclature be formed, the structure of sentences and row relationship in the midst of culture and language how language is stimulated- the wreak of language acquisition (foreigner verses mother diction language). T here atomic number 18 ii approaches/types of linguals 1. Traditional philology- the only field that ruled until the 20 century. 2. Modern Linguistics Traditional Linguistics.Characteristics 1. Proscriptive approach- according to this approach, linguists tell native intercommunicateers how to use their own mother knife- what argon the rules set norms of/ dictating the justly use of the language, the rules and the right use of the language- educating the native speakers. The inclination is to tell the speakers what is considered right or wrong language. 2. Focus on the written language- Most of the focus is on the written text, which is considered superior to the verbalize language the chemical group of the rules. 3.Diachronic Research (etymology) Historical research- the study of the origins of words and languages, which reveals many connections amongst different languages. Due to technological developments, the influence of wholenessness language on a nonher is even higher these days. Modern Linguistics At the set aboutning of the 20 century, there was a shift of interest to the following The human languages are much complex and highly different than animal communication systems- due to amazing cognitive human communication ability (the language faculty).A known Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Sassure- the first linguist to pose the following motility what do we know when we know a language (mother tongue)? By asking this question the focus of linguistics was shifted from grammar to the study of human language as a cognitive ability (cognitive sci ence). The focus shifted to Language faculty ( ) and what it harps of. Characteristics 1. Descriptive approach- we observe native speakers use the language, two in writing and in speaking, and try to draw conclusions out of it- learn about the changes that the language undergoes through time.Not interested in what should be, still alternatively in what IS. There is no judgment of the use, just observation and description of the catamenia use, in order to analyze and find correlations. 2. Focus is on the spoken language- point of de furcateure is that the spoken language is more than important to the research because of the following * It is slight conscious, more inherent, off-the-cuff and dynamic and therefore it reflects better the flow rate use of the language. * Not all languages keep up a written system, scarcely everyone has at least one mother tongue language.* The written language is less natural- one needs to study it in a very logical means whereas the spoken language mother tongue is acquired in a natural a except, commons to everyone (normally in the early years of 3-4). 3. Synchronic Research (current) the focus is non on the origin/History of the words barely on the current use of the words today. We are less interested in what happened except rather in what is happening today. Knowing The whereas knowing about 07/11/11 Linguistic Fields 1. Phonetics- the study of linguistic sounds (also called phones) which are consisted of harmonicals and vowels.The focus is on the articulation and pronunciation of sounds (indep checkent of the letter/ graphics). How the sound is captured. It is independent of the letters (which is just the graphics). How we produce and perceive sounds. 2. Phonology- deals with sounds in interaction, and when they are brought together into words- they usually affect each other. Cats(s), dogs(z)- slightlything very systematic- ( )) 3. Morphology- examines words structure, and the ways words are added i nto our vocabulary, i. e. how we form new words.Ex- dis/ center/ed/ness (the parts are also called Morphemes- small units of words) 4. Syntax- deals with sentence structure and the importee of sentences. We also examine differences between languages- the order of verb and its subject, adj, nouns etc. In addition, we examine Syntaxic Processing , for workout Without her contributions/ are hard to find. At first glance- it looks like something is missing in the sentence, when positively we did not operation it in the right way- we potbelly look at the sentence as without her, contributions are hard to find.5. Semantics- the study of meaning- both of words and sentences, and the logic behind them. 6. Pragmatics deals with meaning in context- how we get a account one some other beyond what is actually said (the use of the language). For example do you get the time? One wont answer yes but rather tell the some personify what time it is. Not like the dry literate meaning, Pragm atics deal with the actual use of language meaning in context- beyond the literate words that were actually said. 2 - * 6 ( = 6 ) * 6 ( = ) 7. Discourse Analysis- Like Pragmatics, this also examines the use of language, but the focus is on the text. written vs. spoken text Narratives vs. expository text the use of conjunctions types of text different tenses complex vs. simple sentences the length of sentences vocabulary etc. 8. Language acquisition- we examine the process of acquiring a language- mother tongue and and then foreign languages.How minorren acquire their mother tongue so quickly? How does the process happen? Which words are produced first etc. It is associate to all the other fields mentioned above. 9. Neuro Linguistic- examines how linguistic knowledge is represented in the whizz. For example aphasia- brain injury that affects the part of the brain that understands linguistics. 10. Psycho Linguistic- a very big field that examines the correlation between language and psychological cognitive processes (for example lexical retrieval).Sometimes one meaning of a word is more prominent than the other, depending on the context. For example bug- insect/ computer come tod problem. The field also examines what happens when there is no context- how we associate between words and its meanings. For example word priming- Duck-(goose/ book)- the word duck primes with goose, faster than with the word book. 11. Historical Linguistics- examines the evolution of languages, the origin of words, and the relation between languages- how they genetically related to one another (Etymology). 12.Computational Linguistics-deals with building artificial intelligence, creating models that try to imitate how language works and use it in different applications. Related to the implementation of linguistics. teaching extraction, more practical. (for example Google translate). 13. Clinical linguistics ( )- the use of linguistic cocks for speech therapy, for hoi polloi who drive home language disorders (both kids and adults). 14. Social Linguistics- the field that examines the interaction between language and society (socio stinting and cultural factors).Socio-linguistics We distinguish between dialects- different varieties of the same language, as a result of many factors. Types of Dialects- 1. Geographic Dialect-changes according to region (city, country). In the states there are so many different dialects, depending on the area one grew up in. 2. Sociolect-typical for a certain group in the society, which has its own amicable, economic and cultural characteristics. 3. Idiolect-dialect that is typical to an individual. It is sometimes gradual, and we dont always notice it. Usually bases on imitation.Each of us speaks a little bit otherwise (intonation, pronunciation, vocabulary etc). 21/11/11 Linguistic knowledge- every 4-5 year old can speak the mother tongue language. Where does the ability to understand and speak a language comes from? The 2 opposed approaches argue on the source of that ability/knowledge Is it ingrained (genes) or acquired (comes from the purlieu, stimulates, feedback)? Two opposed currents in science, which perk up great debate on the nature of human knowledge in general. They argue on the source of the human knowledge 1.Empiricism ( backside lock Hume) -every person comes to the world, as a clean slate- have no knowledge, which means that human knowledge opposes the sum of experiences. Nothing is nescient, we are only equipped with the ability to respond. Everyone are born equal- with nothing innate. This means humans can be shaped- their thought can be manipulated using feedback and exposure. 2. Rationalism (Decardes)-claim that human knowledge does not equal the sum of experiences we are born with some innate material- we are equipped with some ability, to which experience is added.Experience is not the only thing All people are equal, but this equality is based on richness- we all share something very basic and innate, to which environment is added. At the beginning of the second half of the 20 century, the argument of human knowledge continued with regards to the human language mother tongue (different theories) Behaviorism- As continuance of Empiricism- there was a current called Behaviorism (BF mule driver, wrote the communicatory Behavior, 1957). B. F.Skinner claimed, based on Empiricism, that Linguistic knowledge is based solely on exposure and the ability to react- to learn from experience. That means everything is acquired, nothing is in the Genes. Skinner also claimed we explode our sets of sentences, by analogy (differ in only one thing- thus it is able to expand ones use with the other). For example a kid only perceive put-on ate an apple- but he give be able to create the following sentence John ate an Orange using Analogy.This means, we learn and use language, by exposure +analogy. - In the following sentences, con figuration of who does what changes (relationships between the entities) when changing the word told to promise and still, it is mechanically understood by a fry in his mother tongue John told bill to clean the room John promised Bill to clean the room. How? -analogy is not enough to explain the above. -Noam Chomsky (Influenced from Rationalism wrote the Syntactic Structures, 1957) -a linguistic who argued against Skinners observations, claiming Analogy is not enough and we have to assume inborn/innate linguistic knowledge, common to all human beings (regardless of their language or culture), which is also known as the Hypothesis of innateness. The experience and the feedback are mapped on to these language biological properties (encoded in our genes). The experience and feedback are not enough to explain mother tongue knowledge We have to add it to something innate. Language is partially innateEvidence Chomsky proposed to execute his theory 1. Properties of human languages (natur al languages, animals communication systems are excluded)- * Homogeneity- except for pathological brasss, all human beings acquire at least one mother tongue more or less at the same time regardless of their region, culture, socio-economical condition etc. This implies there is something biological in the acquiring of a mother tongue language- we are all the same. * Infiniteness- language is infinite- we have the ability to produce and understand an endless number of sentences, including sentences that we have never heard originally.We have the ability to expand the language (for example- we never count to 1,000,000 but we can). * equal properties across languages- there are some properties that all languages share (therefore- it has to be in the genes, otherwise how can it be explained? ). For example * All languages have nouns and verbs thus, it has to be some inborn categories. * Universal grammer rules/structures, that all languages share * John said that Mary bought a car. What did John sound out Mary bought? * Bill said that John said that Mary bought a car. What did Bill say that John said that Mary bought?* John break the rumor that Mary bought a car. What did John spread the rumor that Mary bought? Ungrammatic sentence- any speaker will know this sentence is un grammatical- impossible in English. What prevents speakers of using the above structure intuitively (in other languages as well)? Chomsky claimed that there are universal constraints (in all grammer of all languages) that prevent it. 28/11/11 2. Properties of the process of language acquisition (mother tongue) * Process is quick and efficient- sister has to acquire a very complex system of rules, and he does it by the age of 4-5.By the age of 5 he already masters the language (in comparison to the long and complex process of learning a foreigner language). It shows that there is something innate behind it, otherwise- it would have been a quick process also when learning foreigner langua ge. * Critical period/age- there is a certain age in which the child essential be exposed to a language (the innate system has to be stimulated, activated), in order to acquire it- the age is usually some 6-8, and in some extreme cases it can go until adolescence (16).If it was not activated during the critical period, the child will have no mother tongue- he will have no grammer. He will be able to communicate in a basic function, but without the richness and infinity of the mother tongue acquisition, since the brain is no longer elastic enough to acquire a mother tongue. The issue of critical period provides support for the importance of both exposer and innate theories. Chomsky agrees that exposer is crucial, but it is crucial to activate innate abilities.If it was only exposer it would have been possible to acquire a mother tongue at any age. * Process is spontaneous/ immune against external interference- the process happens by itself and the teacher/ parent cannot manipulate it. MCNeal (1964)-research that shows you cannot manipulate childs grammer, it will eventually change by itself with exposer. * Identical stages across languages- children acquire their mother tongue in parallel stages across linguistics, more or less at the same time, regardless of the language.This shows that there is some biological aspect to the process of mother tongue acquisition we have to assume something innate in order for the process to be so universal. (First they babble, then acquire first words, combining 2 words together, then start using sentences). * Poverty of stimuli- stimuli(the input) is poor- it is not enough to explain completely how a child acquires and masters his mother tongue a. The stimuli is partial and consists of errors- the child can never be exposed to everything, still he makes up sentences he has never heard before.What he is exposed to is limited, yet what he can produce is endless. In addition, the stimuli consist of errors- he child doesnt alwa ys listen to complete/ grammatical correct sentences the input he hears consists of partial sentences and grammatical errors yet the children know how to filter the errors and eventually acquire a perfect grammer. b. There is no teaching- the process of acquiring a mother tongue involves no methodological and pedagogical process (in regard to grammer). c. No negative evidence- there are mistakes that no child will ever make, even though he is not told ahead not to make them.For example John thinks he is smart (he can be either John or somebody else) VS. He thinks John is smart (he can never refer to John). When examining language acquisition, we see children making many mistakes, but no child will ever use the second sentence when he wants to refer to John. No child will make such mistakes to begin with- they just know, without being told ahead. De Sassure was the first one to ask what do we know when we know a language? What does it mean to know a language? He distinguished betwee n the following terms * Langue-the rules of the language, that are agreed upon by some society.The rules of a language, but from a social point of view (a social term). * release-everything we use or say- the way we actually use the language (What we actually do, language wise). Linguists are generally more interested in the Langue (the knowledge). De Sassure didnt relate to the question of innateness- what abilities, if any, we have in our minds 12/12/11 Noam Chomsky used 2 other terms Competence vs. Performance. 1. Performance the same as Parole performance is how we actually use the language what we actually write or say. 2. Competence is not exactly the same as Langue.Both relate to the rules of the language, but Langue is about the society, the community (grammer is something social, that we all agree on- social interaction creating social agreement) and Competence is about the individual (the system one has in his mind some of it comes from the genes and some from the environ ment). Competence is the ability that each of us has to produce and understand an endless number of sentences. Every speaker of every language, has the ability (whether it is innate or not). The point of view of Chomsky and De Sassure is different when relating to the rules of the language.In modern linguistics- the focus is on the Langue- competence and not directly what we say/do with the language (the main remnant is to crack the black box and understand how the system works). The performance is the mean to learn about the competence, not the direct end. It teaches us/indicates about the competence the way we speak or write tells us about how the knowledge is organized in ones mind. The main question that linguists ask is what does competence consist of? Chomskys Model UG+EXPOSER= G. Chomsky assumes innateness and that language faculty is to some extent universal (some things are common to all languages).He Offers a SPECIFIC model for this question When a child is born he is in t he initial state. In this state, he has some specific knowledge, shared by all languages Universal Grammer (UG) it is the grammer that is common to all languages. In addition to the difference in vocabulary, there are grammatical differences between languages by the end of the critical period, he has more than the UG, he ends up with Particular Grammer (PG, G)- specific grammer of a specific language. There are many Gs, as many as the number of languages in the world.A child is equipped with universal grammer, common to all languages, and during the first years he is exposed to his mother tongue and how it takes place (feedback, corrections, mistakes etc)- and acquires particular/specific grammer. UG+EXPOSER= G. The G is a combination of something innate and something that comes from the environment. What does the UG consist of? According to Chomskys model, UG consists of two things 1. Principles- rules that are innate and that are common to all languages (things that dont change a t all from one language to another, such as the existence of nasal consonants).2. Parameters- those are also rules that are innate, and are also part of universal grammer but in contrast to princi buddys, these are open rules, whose values (fillings) are acquired during the exposer. The values are not common to different languages, Thus they have to be acquired via exposer. For example in all language there is a subject in every sentence but in some languages the subject must be a separate entity- which means the subject position is always occupied vs. in some languages the subject can be dropped (English does not allow the displace of a subject cant say ate an apple.We must add a subject vs. Hebrew- represents the subject. In the French language, we are not allowed to drop the subject, even when it is known who did the action Jai mange la pomme- the French ai is like the Hebrew , yet we still cannot drop the J we have to have a separate entity for the subject). This paramet er is called the Null subject parameter ( )- The Parameter the subject must be pronounced separately The determine of the Parameter (that has to be filled- determined through the acquisition process) Yes or No.In Hebrew and Italian the value is no (in some cases, we can have a sentence without a subject), in English and French the value is Yes. During the critical period, the child is exposed to the data in his mother tongue and they acquire the values to the fixed parameters (the parameter is innate, its values though are not innate- they change from language to language and acquired in the childs critical period). another(prenominal) Parameter is * It is juicy outside- * It seems that Marry is late- * There is a cat in the room- In English the occurrence of the pronouns (functioning as the sentences subject) it and there is a must they cannot be dropped (it is not grammatical, although one will be perfectly understood if hell say it) in Hebrew, we can drop them. Even th ough semantically we dont need the subject, in English it must be filled. These pronouns are called Expletive / Pleonastic Pronouns- pronouns that do not refer to an entity, but theyre only function is to fill the subject position. They HAVE NO SEMANTIC ROLE, THEY ARE ONLY THERE TO FILL THE POSTION OF THE SUBJECT.We distinguish between pleonastic pronouns and referential pronouns, which refer to some motley of entity (he, she, w, they etc). It and There are not always expletive pronouns- they can also function as referential pronouns It is hot outside (expletive) vs. I cant eat the dope, (referential) the cat is there (referential) vs. there is a cat in the room (expletive). We can relate to it as two parameters 1. Parameter an expletive pronoun exists values yes/no. (In English- yes, in Hebrew- no). 2. Parameter a subject is a must values yes/no.(We can say that if a language must have a subject, it will necessary have Expletive pronouns and vice versa If the subject is not a mu st- there are no expletive pronouns. there might be, but they will not be a must). The two things come together- * Cluster of properties- The Parameters come in clusters- one affects/ can teach about the other. The existence of Principles and Parameters strengthens the hypothesis of innateness, because it shows the occurrence of certain grammer structures is not random- there is something consistent across different languages, which therefore must be predetermined, innate.19/12/11 Some languages require an independent subject and in addition- they have expletive pronouns (it seems that the quiz will be difficult- expletive this soup is not tasty because it is cold. The it is referential- points to an entity). Proposition Stranding and Pied Piping Who did you speak to? can also be asked as followed To whom did you speak? - These are two possible grammatical structures that manifest the same idea. It is not possible in Hebrew This construction is called- Preposition Str anding- you desert the proposition by itself leaving the proposition by itself at the end of the sentence. It can be viewed as a parameter, differentiating languages. Another construction/parameter is Pied Piping- locating the proposition at the beginning of the sentence. This parameter is valued yes in both English and Hebrew (allowed in both languages). Material for the quiz is up to here -Phonetics and Phonology- These are both fields that deal with sound and specifically linguistic sounds (phones- ) sounds that are parts of a language. Phones are divided into consonants (b, l, r, m) and vowels (e, a, i ). The differentiation doesnt refer to the letters, but to the sounds that are used course/ automatically.(Since the same sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters, for example the sound K- is represented by 4 letters k, c, q, ch. We will refer to all 4 as K). In Phonetics- Different sounds are examined in different languages how they are produced and how t hey are perceived- it is a skillful field regarding how pronunciation works.One sound can be expressed/ represented by different symbols/letters or one letter u represents many sounds university, fur, put, cut etc. Conclusion there is no balance between sound and symbol. Phonetic systems (systems of symbols- used for transcription- write exactly as you here it- distinguish between spelling and pronunciation) 1. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) a system of symbols, used mainly by linguists, in which every sound corresponds to one symbol and vice versa. 2. American Phonetic Alphabet (APA) similar, yet competing system to the IPA.These are two similar, yet competing, artificial languages/ systems, dealing with the ambiguity of the languages/ with the lack of correspondence between sound and symbol. Both systems are based on English letters, other than special sounds/exceptions (that have no one specific letter in English that prescribe them) such as * in order to indicate/tran scribe sh we use stretched big s (IPA) or s(APA)- (the should be crest down) * ch= t+stretched big S with a bow on summit meeting of them (IPA) or c (APA) * for th (such as in thin) = 0 with a line across it (APA+IPA) 26/12/11 A negligible equal- * big- pig * sing- sang.* dean- teen (The only difference is the phone- t vs d. The spelling is irrelevant) * knight- light These words are different in meaning, yet they are different in only one sound. The switch of the consonant g/ p changes the meaning of the word. This kind of word p transports are called minimal pair-a pair of words that differ from one another in meaning and in one phone (sound) only. (Only one difference in pronunciation- the spelling is irrelevant) * night- knight are not a minimal pair, because there is no difference in pronunciation. Phoneme- Phoneme- a minimal linguistic unit that can change the meaning.One of the goals of recognizing minimal pairs is to recognize the basic sounds in a language, that can cause a change of meaning. We use the tool of minimal pairs to identify and distinguish between the Phonemes of a language. Aspirated consonant ( ) * Spy vs. pie- when we pronounce pie, there is a greater puff of air when pronounced. This is also the case in stole vs. tall (in tall we puff much more air). These are aspirated consonants, which are marked with a little h on top of the consonant. They are two types for the same consonant- the regular and the aspirated one, where we puff a greater amount of air (pie tall).Are the aspirated consonants phonemes? (Can they distinguish between a minimal pair? -can we find a pair of words that the only difference between them is aspirated consonant vs. non-aspirated). In English, there is no such pair yet in the Hindi language we can find several examples. Conclusions 1. In English, they are not phonemes (vs. Hindi), because they can never occur in the same environment/ positioning of the word, which means they are 2 manifestations/versions of the same thing. We can harbinger in which environment/ when the aspirated consonant will occur. 2. negligible pairs are used to distinguish between phonemes and also to determine which consonants and vowel are not phonemes. 2/1/2012 Pig big (minimal pair) vs. Pie, spy (not a minimal pair since there are 2 differences in pound). In English, aspirated and regular Complementary Distribution- these two sounds never occur at the same environment/ same location of the words, which means they are two manifestations of the same thing of the phone p. This means P is the phoneme which has two manifestations aspirated and regular (non-aspirated). This means that this phone has two allophones.Two ways of language representation- 1. Phonemes- the general term for linguistics sounds. These are the basic sounds of a language, and are language specific (are not the same in different languages). They are part of the Underlying Representation (UR) the way and the place words and sounds in spe cific, are represented in our mind- in the backstage- abstract representation. The phoneme has two manifestations one is the actual p and the other is the aspirated one. 2. What we actually say are allophones. Allophones are in the Phonetic/ Representation (PR) what comes out of our mouths (articulation).Every phoneme is also an allophone, but not the other way around Thus, there are some things that are represented in the PR, yet are not represented in the UR (like the aspirated p). In the Ur we have the regular P phoneme, which has two manifestations in the PR In English, the only case we see an aspirated P is in the beginning of a word and before a vowel (both must occur together). In all other case the P will not be aspirated. For example Possible, put, pink, pan, etc. vs. apply, spring, nobble etc. This means the aspirated P has no independence existence- we can predict its occurrence.The default is the regular P and only in a specific environment will have an aspirated P. Th e aspirated P doesnt exist in the UR Another example is regular N vs. the back N They cannot distinguish between minimal pairs in English- will never occur in the same environment. We will find the back n only before the sounds k and g- in specific environment, which is predictable. For ex bank, Bangkok, rank, chunk, rang, ring, thanks, bring. The normal N is the default will occur everywhere else, except for before the sounds g and k sounds.These two allophones are two versions of the same thing (of the one phoneme) that never occur in the same environment- complementary distribution. N is the phoneme, which has two allophones n and back n. We can predict exactly where each of the manifestations will occur. * The phoneme is in the UR and the allophones are in the PR. * The default is always in the UR The phoneme. * The allophones are always in complementary distribution- meaning they never occur in the same environment and will never distinguish between minimal pairs.You can nver find in English 2 words where the only difference between them will be n and back n. * Minimal pairs are the tools to identify phonemes. Distinctive Features 1. Aspiration The pair pal- pal (with aspirated p) in Hindi these two words are different in meaning and in one phone only. In specific, they are different in one feature only aspirated vs. non-aspirated. This means, they constitute a minimal pair (In Hindi). Aspiration this feature in Hindi unlike the English, we have both because they have independent existence- each of them is a phoneme on its own.Aspiration this feature in Hindi, unlike English, is a Distinctive Feature- a feature that distinguishes between 2 phonemes in the same language and as a result it can create a difference between minimal pairs. Aspiration is not a distinctive feature in Hebrew and English. It is a distinctive feature in Hindi language. 2. Voicing ( )- Dean Teen d- Is a voice (+voice) consonant ( ) and t is voiceless (- voice). This feature, called voicing, creates different meaning in both words. Thus, it is a distinctive feature in English, because it can distinguish between minimal pairs.Minimal pair- a minimal pair is a pair of words that differ from one another in one meaning, 1 phone (sound) only, and the 2 phones must be different in one feature 9/1/2012 Phonetic features of consonants- What makes sound/phones different from one another? Linguistic sounds are called phones, and are divided into consonants and vowels. The difference between the two in the production of vowels the air flows freely, however in the production of consonants the air is blocked to some extent. The speech organs- body organs that are involved in the production of phones (Lips, tongue, nose, teeth, and palate).Generally, the following are involved the oral cavity and the nasal cavity ( ). The consonants differ from one another according to 3 criteria 1. Place of articulation- the location in which the air is blocked and the consonant is produced (B- in the lips T- in the tongue P-in the lips and teeth) 2. Manner of articulation ( ) relates to the manner of the air flow and the degree of blocking. For example n- blocked in the nose. 3. Voicing- relates to the vibration/ the lack of vibrat.

“He Is More Than A Hero” written by Sappho Essay

He is a god in my eyes- the man who is allowed to sit beside youIf I met you suddenly, I cant speak- my tongue is impoverishedThe following lines were taken from a poem written by Sappho entitled He Is More Than A Hero. For those who are not familiar with Sappho, she was a resident of a city names Lesbos. She lived from 630 B.C. 570 B.C. In the city of Lesbos, Sappho was a highly respected poet/teacher by many but mainly the females. It is said that she was forever surrounded by a circle of women who studied poetry with her. I am using this oscilloscope information and the quotation from one of her many poems He Is More Than A Hero to support my surmisal that Sappho was a homosexual. Though the evidence is merely circumstantial, I feel that it is enough to convince one that she is a homosexual.The poem which I extracted my thesis statement is obviously universe written to a woman, but it is sprucely masked by the title He Is More Than A Hero and a few early(a) lines in the poem. In the beginning of the poem she is briefly describing someones male confederate who is ostensibly a good lover possessing a few qualities that Sappho admires. He who listens to the sweet murmur of your voice- the enticing gag that makes my own heart beat fast.Though the first few lines serve as a knavish mask, a cultured reader notices that the poem suddenly changes subjects, moving from a description of this man who is a god in Sapphos eyes to a declaration of love for the female companion of this man-god. The 3-4th lines pass over an unknown you who is apparently the companion of this striking male. The you is also addressed in line 9 . The domiciliate of the poem following that is a love ballad to this you who was first identified as being the companion of the man god. If one is not a skilled reader he/she may have lost the transition of the poem from one person to anformer(a).The first few lines serve as a disguise and a way for the author to express her jealousy o f him being next to his female companion. She views him asbeing a god because him being in the object of Sapphos affection makes him that. This is based on the view that if someone possesses something that you do not then they have a higher position of power than you. This prospect accounts for her viewing him as being a God.There are also a few other pieces of evidence that suggest that the poet Sappho was a homosexual. She was a resident of an city known as Lesbos. The name of the city had a striking similarity to a word which is given to homosexual women of modern times lesbian. It is also said that she was often surrounded by women who were her students. Though this evidence can be seen as being only circumstantial, I feel that the combination of her addressing a female in her poem He Is More Than A Hero as having certain homo-erotic effects on her such as devising her feel as a thin flame runs under my skin and making her drip with cause whenever she sees her is enough to la bel her as being the Greatest Lesbian Poet of Rome

Law and morals

Law and honourableity Part A Law has been define by Sir John Salmons as the body of principles accepted and applied by the state in presidentship of Justice. There atomic number 18 two theories on what virtue Is, the natural fairness theory and the positivist law theory Lloyd a natural law theorist defined the law as the constant impudence that there are objective clean principles which depend upon the natural of the universe and can be discovered by reason Natural law theorists believe that for law to be valid It must combine with natural law.Natural law theorist Aristotle describes natural law to be the law of nature. Positivist law theorists such as John Austin would describe law as a law which exists to be law though we happen to dis standardised It positivists such as Jeremy Beneath rejected natural law theories, he describes them as nonsense on stilts his key argument was that natural law was based on principles that could non be proved. Legal positivists believe that a law that is do In a manner recognized by the sovereign power of the state is valid irrespective of its content.Legal rules stool many different characteristics. For physical exertion breach of legitimate rules can result in state sanctions and reoccurred a S. 47 PAPA 1861 wretched carried and a maximum sentence of 5 years. Compliance is not a matter of choice when it comes to reasoned rules. These rules are imposed upon all members of gild. Compulsory compliance applies to judge made decisions as well. The case of R v R established that man could be found guilty of raping his wife, this was a Judge made law.Fuller would argue that this is not valid law as it is retrospective. Legal rules are made and shoot make a motion at a precise season. A precedent is created in the Judgment of case and it applies to future cases and rower courts. The legislation will however start to take effect at a precise time for example the Smoke Free Premises and Enforcement Regulation s , implemented a ban on smoking in public places , were made on 13th December 2006 but came in to effect on the beginning(a) of July 2007.Phil Harris defines society Morality as a commemorate of beliefs, values, principles and standards of behavior. Compliance with good rules is voluntary, so plurality have a choice as to whether or not they follow these. People make psycheal decisions as to what they consider moral and fast. Moral duties of Individuals ray. For example some people may believe that stillbirth is immoral while others consider It acceptable. Moral rules develop gradually. They often stem from religious rules made thousands of years ago.Over time, what society once considered Immoral, can become acceptable. For example attitudes towards homosexuality continue to revision Moral rules are enforce Informally , usually through social or domestic pressure for example John terry cloth lost his title as the England football team captain because of his Infidelity Si r John Salmons describes the relationship teenage law and moral philosophy as two Intersecting circles, with the Intersection representing laws with moral values and the separate areas for laws and morals with no connection.Many laws have a moral connection such as the law against murdering another person this can be traced back to religious scriptures such as the 10 Commandments and is punishable by a mandatory life sentence Public morality can influence changes in the law, like abortion was legalized by the Abortions Act consenting adults as society changed to accept homosexuality the more law has followed this change by trim the age of consent to make it the same for trousseaux couples in 2000. Law reform may result from a campaign to change public morality. Howard league for penal reform persuaded the government to take a look at capital punishment.The government refused to change the laws because society considered death penalty to be morally correct. Subsequently a pressure group was set up, during the years of 1955-1957 public opinion was changed by the campaign and the government introduced laws to abolish the death penalty Public morality can be influenced by law reform such as the stultification Discrimination Act 995 as by the Disability Discrimination Act 2005, which makes it against the law to discriminate against disable people in any areas of employment, education, access to goods, facilities and operate and the function of public authorities.It can be argued that legislation is introduced to with the aim of educating the public to recognize morally improper behavior. Thus demonstrating the convergence between the two Some legal rules appear to have no moral connection. Like the fact that smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol is legal but cannabis is illegal. passageway traffic laws such as irking on a yellow line. In Britain there is no keen Samaritan law, however we all have a moral duty to support those around us if they are in danger .For example a passer-by will not be legally held responsible if they dont help someone drowning. But they do have a moral duty to help them this was seen in 2007 when 2 Pesos were subjected to bad media and moral outcry when they failed to help a drowning boy. The reason for divergence between moral and legal rules is that the moral attitude might not me widespread and they may not reflect popular morality The UK as a large multicultural, multiracial society, with citizens with different views on politics and religion.For example some people regard abortion as immoral while others see it as acceptable for medical reasons only at the second reading of the human fertilization and embryology bill on may 20th 2008 MSP voted against reducing the current 24 weeks abortion limit to 20 weeks. Therefore demonstrating that although there is a relationship between Law and Morality it will always be partial. Art B The wolfed stem was issued in 1957 it was set up to consider the law relating to nonsexual acts & prostitution, also to see the function of the criminal law in such cases. The military commission said the function of the law is to pressure public order and decency and to protect citizens from what is offensive or injurious and to provide sufficient safeguards against exploitation and corruption of others, particularly those who are vulnerable.The function of the committee is not to intervene in private life of citizens or to enforce any particular fig of behavior. The committee made three proposals which were, homosexual acts between two concerting adults should e made legal, soliciting in the streets should be made an offence and selling of services for money should be a private matter. The Hart and Devils disceptation was prompted by the wolfed report by the wolfed report. The focus of the debate was the extent to which the law can enforce moral rules.Lord Devils set out his view in a book (the enforcement of morals, with Hart setting up his views in his own book that the minority should not be made to conform to the view of the majority when in private. Sir James Stephen argued in his book liberty, equality, fraternity (1874) that o shouldnt attempt to distinguish between self-regarding act and acts which regards others is like an attempt to distinguish between acts which happen in time and acts that may happen in space.The wolfed report supported Harts view that law and morality should be separate, however various cases decided since the report show that Judges are imposing their moral views on their Judgments, for example R v Brown. This is an example of how moral change led to legal change. Devils views are in line with those of Sir James Stephen, as Devils believed that individual hiding should be respect.

How Stevenson Creates a Sense of Intrigue and Engages the Reader’s Interest in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Essay

In this essay I am expiry to be exploring how Stevenson examines squared-toe hypocrisy and human nature, the duality of man, in his famous tale, The quaint Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. His novella, ready verb aloney in 1886, was set in London, and is described as a gothic horror. Stevenson uses Mr Utterson, a modest lawyer, to flow us with the novella, unravelling to the mystery gradually through step up the novella. By revealing a few clues at a time, many an(prenominal) questions emerge in the readers mind, however, that a few of these argon answered throughout the tale. Stevenson uses a wide range of style and structural devices to build a sense of interest and engage the reader.Dr Jekyll, a renowned London scientist, was born into a wealthy family with large(p) honour and had gained jimmy from his fellow men. Dr Jekyll struggled with the dual nature of his nature and although he was loyal to his friends, Jekyll had a dark side, which he picking to express in the p erson of Mr Hyde. He noticed that man is not rattling one, but truly two and this lead him to recognise the thorough and primitive duality of man. Jekyll saw the need to track Hyde from the world since he was compel to be respectable and loyal to everyone around him due to his class since birth. However, Dr Jekyll had check his pleasures for too long and his darker side grew intemperateer and stronger inside him throughout his life. Many of the pleasures Hyde was able to have included intoxication alcohol, and gambling as well as being able to fulfill many of his sexual desires.I believe that Jekyll was guilty of that crime upon so pitiful as provocation, which he committed through Hyde, because he had a choice to drink the potion again and carrying on with his devilish deeds or mash his darker side from committing much(prenominal) devious crimes. Jekyll, himself, couldnt resist and was too tempted to drink more of the potion again with strong courage, eve though he was awar e of the consequences he will have to face. Stevenson engages the readers by victimization many negative adjectives to describe Hyde, which suggest he is a villain. When Utterson questions the maid the morning after the politician, Mr Carew, was murdered, she explains to Utterson that all of a sudden Hyde broke out in a flame of anger, stamping his foot, brandishing his cane and carrying on wish a madman.This is shocking to the reader because a man who owned a cane in Victorian participation was known to be a respectable gentleman. Hyde is as well described, by the maid, to have had ape-like insaneness. Being compared to an ape was said to someone who is a person who resembles a nonhuman primate1 and has so more than rage to the point of committing the most unspeakable horror against innocence. Utterson is biased when guiding the reader through the novella. In the first chapter, Story of the Door, Utterson tells us that he is a modest man and that his friends are those of his o wn line of business. The reader is influenced to think that Jekyll, having been stated as a good friend, belongs to the same middle-class society as Mr Utterson does. So when Jekyll commits his devilish deeds, the reader is shocked because men of the middle-class societies are known to be humble and loyal, not evil.Stevenson creates intrigue for the reader by using long, lengthy descriptions in the tale in order to draw out the highly gruesome aspects of the scene set in The Carew instruction execution Case. Around the scene of the incident, there was a misty fog and clouds over the city while the lavish moon lit up the night. The full moon associates with the time when evil beings, often shown as deform men or werewolves, commit their most heinous acts. The fog suggests intrigue and mystery.Stevenson uses highly descriptive language during the attack. The maid explains to Utterson how Mr Carew, the kindly gentleman, was trampled under foot and his bones were audibly shattered by the ape-like Hyde. Stevenson starts off The Carew off Case by describing a quiet scene however this contrasts against the abominable attack, which is described in many gory details. Hyde was described as a small person compared to his good side, Dr Jekyll, which may be because Stevenson mean to emphasis on how low Hyde had gone by committing heinous crimes.Using lengthy descriptions, Stevenson sets the scene to create an atmosphere and engage the reader. Stevenson sets his novella in 18- and mentions bad deeds and secrecy throughout the parable. This may be because Stevenson saw that although most noblemen seem to be modest and loyal from the outside, inside they hid dark secrets. In chapter 7, The stretch out Night, Jekyll transforms uncontrollably into Mr Hyde and by describing the unsettling weather, Stevenson shows this as a bad omen. Stevenson shows that the evil was angering the wind outside by describing the wind, which only broke in puffs and draughts into that deep we ll of building, tossed the light of the candle to and fro. Most crimes that Hyde commits are ordinarily during the night as this is the time when evil is lurking around the most. Stevenson also mentions that all human beingsare commingled out of good and evil by using Dr Jekylls statement.Stevenson shows us that appearances of middle-class noblemen can never be fully trusted and also ventures to tell us how important reputation was in the nineteenth century. Jekyll had crush his darker, evil side inside of him for far too long and was unaware that it was growing inside of him day-by-day. Jekyll was forced into being a middle-class nobleman since birth because he was brought up in one such modest family. A similar thought may have emerged in the readers in about Jack the Ripper who had been suggested to be living a double life and may have been a respectable man in his society with an uncontrollable dark side. Stevenson shows that the evil in Hyde is very sulphurous by describing the scene where he tramples on the innocent, little girl on the street corner and also when describing the scene where Hyde slays Mr Carew brutally. Hyde also causes death indirectly when Dr Lanyon dies after witnessing the transformation of Dr Jekyll into Mr Hyde. Dr Lanyon may have realised that he too had an evil side himself.The nineteenth century was often with Mary Shelleys concept of a mans double self. Frankenstein had created his monster in 1818 and many associate the name Frankenstein with monsters and devils nowadays alternatively than names of scientists. Frankensteins monster had destroyed him in a similar way Hyde had brought the life of that suffering Henry Jekyll to an end. Dr Jekyll and Dr Frankenstein both wanted to become renowned scientists with their own creations and therefore, Dr Frankenstein had created a monster by ignoring the rules of nature and using body parts of dead human beings, whilst Dr Jekyll had created a potion, which would unleash his evil sid e, Mr Hyde.Frankensteins monster had had achieved domination over Frankenstein and shortly was able to kill him completely. In a similar way, Hyde had over antecedented Jekyll and soon murdered him too. Also, a man called Faust had sold his soul to the devil in exchange for absolute power and knowledge whilst he was still alive. Ina similar way, Jekyll created Hyde, as one of his marvellous creations, however, instead of being steep of his creation, Jekylls terror of gallows drove him continually to commit temporary suicide.After reading The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, when it was first published, readers would have realised that man has both, an evil and a good side to him. At the time the book was published, society was very strict, it didnt question religion and there was a great divide between poverty and wealth. This made the readers of the time engaged and intrigued. The Victorian Society was very apparitional at the time and believed that if you sinned then you will be banished to hell for eternity. The story was enormously popular with it Victorian audience, showing a fascination with the other side of life. Many of the characters in the novella have professions that were seen to be significant and dominating by society, such as a Doctor and a Politician. The readers may be influenced into thinking that the upper classes were more likely to have a dual personality compared to someone of a lower class. He might also have been moralising here, exposing Victorian hypocrisy for what it was.

Melodrama as a Genre

In his essay Melodrama and Tears, Steve Neale proposes the melodrama as a genre emerged to occupy the aloofness between tragedy and comedy. Neale quotes Denis Diderot and identifies melodrama as a primarily touching art form, which has the ability to move audiences and suffer physical reactions like crying. Neale discusses Diderots quote the pleasure of being touched and giving way to weeping as an important part of the melo hammy mode. Neale continues to illustrate in his essay how the tricks used in exhibit point of beguile and clock perform an essential role in achieving maximum pity in melodrama.Neale argues that the melodramas rely on the discrepancies between the knowledge that the spectator has and knowledge that the type has, to achieve maximum dramatic potential. This is also a way for the spectators to be more than involved with the story, as they are now in a position of power. They hold the code that could possibly unlock the mystery and cause events to happen. The spectators awareness of this power and the resulting helplessness they feel with their actual inability to influence the events unfolding on examine is what drives the pathos.A fairly neutral scene in Awaara(1951), of the Judge meeting a stranger at a birthday party is heightened by our knowledge that the characters share a father-son bond, unknown to either of them. Neale also points surface the optical point of view method of using eye line match to establish characters emotions. The Best Years of Our Lives(1946), uses this to let the audience know that Fred and Peggy still have feelings for each other. As Homer and Wilma stand at the altar and get married, we see Fred and Peggy gazing at each other and comprehend the words of commitment spoken by the priest.They maintain their gaze without breaking, till they finally embrace and admit their love to each other. Linda Williams also acknowledges the feeling of helplessness, by giving us an example of her seven family old sons reluctance to watch melodrama. Williams articulates her sons disgust at the uncomely emotions that remind him a little too acutely of his own powerlessness as a tyke. The term unseemly emotions is the code for what Williams calls the excesses of movie theater. She compares melodrama to lampblack and horror cinema by stating that here naked emotions put back the naked bodies and extreme violence in the other genres.She defines melodrama as encompassing a range of films pronounced by lapses in realism, by excesses of spectacle and displays of primal, even infantile emotions and narrative that seem circular and repetitive. twain Williams and Neale define the unrealistic nature of the narrative as a fundamental element of melodrama. Neale points out that melodramatic storey relies heavily on events not being defined through a realist standpoint, but more dependent on chance encounters and coincidences. The generic verisimilitude of melodrama tends to marked by the extent to whic h the succession and course of events is wanton (or undermotivated) from a realist point of view. He calls this an excess of effect over cause, arguing that this phenomenon assigns power to the possible action of an external force governing the story. As the all-knowing spectator, some of this power flows to us too, causing our phantasm of being able to affect the situation. This makes the lack of our ability to influence the story even more poignant, resulting in our feeling of vulnerability.According to Williams, it is the audiences involvement with the physical display of emotion on the screen that causes the pathos. Williams argues that the young-bearing(prenominal) spectacle of the body is offered as a sensational sight in different genres. The horror genre uses terror, pornography uses orgasm, and melodrama uses crying to portray an excess of emotion. She theorizes that our tendency to imitate the emotion on screen lends the element of pathos to melodrama. The act of a bo dy, not in control, convulsing with tears lends itself to heightened identification by the audience.Both Neale and Williams demonstrate the c formerlypt of timing as an effective method to control pathos in melodrama. Neale attributes timing and articulation of point of view to contribute evenly to the effect of poignancy and pathos. Neale presents Morettis thesis that the concluding act in the cinema is always too late to affect the protagonist. An example for this point maybe a story where the prey of affection might only verbally reciprocate the feeling after the character is dead sequence we, as the audience know it beforehand.Moretti also presents the system that our tears are a result of the human race that our fantasy has been fulfilled and now will not continue. Neale counters this argument by suggesting that delayed timing is equally poignant in some cases. The pathos arises from the fact that we are dependent on the time of the narration and its narrative, rather than just the fact that it is always too late. Here, Williams is almost identical in her theory and uses the phrase too late to define the temporality of fantasy.Williams also speaks about Morettis theory and argues that the once the pursuit is over, there is a sense of melancholic loss that the audience experiences. She evokes the Freudian concept of archetype fantasy to define what the characters are in pursuit of. The enigma frequently occurred during melodrama is work by the fantasy of family romance, or return to origins. Although Williams and Neale take different approaches to defining the melodramatic sensibility, they both do find a common ground in what forms pathos on the screen.There are finer points to be examined in both the essays but a general view points to the spectators feeling of helplessness and the crucial element of timing as being very important contributions to the dramatic element of melodrama.Neale, Steve. Melodrama and Tears. cover song 27 (November-Decemb er 1986) 6-22. Williams, Linda. Film Bodies Gender, Genre, and Excess. Film Quaterly, Published by University of California Press 44. 4 (Summer 1991) 2-13.

Health Essay

I do agree with this weeks speaker Sarah Lightheart one-hundred percent I compute that health is so hard to define because of the fact, there ar so many different aspects of health. health is non just eating right, exercising, and being social every now and again. There are sise different dimensions of health that fatality to have some sort of balance in order to strive the optimal level of health in oneself to in turn be healthy.To me, health does not spurious that it you are lacking a little in one area of the six aspects of health that you are an unhealthy person, I feel that there needs to be more than of a balance indoors all six dimensions. In addition, every aspect does not need to be at a maximum level for a person to be healthy I personally focus more on the emotional, physical, spiritual, and social aspects of health and the rest just fall into place for me.With the exception of environmental health aspect, I do want I can but, I do not go proscribed of my way t o be more healthy in the environmental dimension, in which I do need to find more of a balance. In conclusion, the definition of health to me is a balance of all six dimensions of health I believe that each person has their own personal levels they need to maintain to be healthy, Every human has their own individual traits to be healthy, and what makes one person healthy may not do the same for another.

MicroEconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

MicroEconomics - Essay ExampleThis geek of monopoly emerges due to natural advantages like abundant mineral resources, good location and so on. For instance, Gulf nations imbibe monopoly in the exploration of crude fossil oil as a result of plenty of natural oil resources (Mankiw & Taylor, 2006).It also occurs when it is financially impractical or impossible for many companies to engage in a business, for example, when it requires life-sized investments of capital that other companies cannot raise (Tucker, 2011).This occurs when the governing body passes laws and regulations that reserve a particular trade, services or goods for government agencies (McKenzie & Lee, 2006). For instance, many governments are in charge of running water.Occurs when multiple businesses or firms combine or amalgamate, for example, a combination between competitors like Burger firm and Pizza firm leads to join monopoly thus reducing disceptation (Tucker, 2011).Monopolies exist so as to dominate the ma rket place by controlling the pricing of a specific product. This is due to lack of economic competition because such a firm controls a pregnant volume of the market. It also exists due to high operating cost cost which discourages other firms (Tucker, 2011). For instance, it requires a high overhead cost to construct power lines from scratch and acquire necessary equipment to generate power, making power follow a monopoly.c) Intellectual property protection- extension of patents and copyrights to businesses by the government give them the right of being the touch on provider of that new product thus creating a temporary monopoly (Mankiw & Taylor,